Vincent Summers, Author at Quirky Science

22Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 14 Comments

Why Sulfuric Acid Turns Sugar Black

Chemistry

Sugar is white. Sulfuric acid is colorless. So how is it sulfuric acid turns sugar black? Table sugar is actually two sugars in one—a disaccharide. It is commonly known as sucrose. Sucrose is a combination of fructose, a sugar found in fruits, and glucose, known also as blood-sugar, grape-sugar, and corn-sugar. Its chemical formula is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁. The way these atoms are attached to each other by chemical bonds determines its structural formula. In the Left Corner… Most sugar from a grocery store is granular and pure white. If the grains are large enough—existing as large crystals—it is immediately apparent that sugar isn't even white; it is totally colorless and transparent. Sold at candy stores, we call it rock candy. [sc name="MidArticleAdsense"] In the Right Corner… Concentrated sulfuric acid is thick…

22Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Why Electric Home Heat is So Expensive

Electrical

Heat is so expensive! Especially is this so for electric heat. Why? Electricity flowing through a conductor obeys the simple mathematical relationship, E = IR That equation reads: electromotive force (E) equals current (I) times resistance (R). Since the power consumed (P) equals the current times the voltage, P = EI = IR x I = I2R P = I2R This equation informs us that the power consumed by a device is equal to the square of the current (that is, the current times itself, I x I), times the resistance to current flow of the device. If an electrical conductor is very good—for example, a thick copper wire—the power consumed is quite small. This is because the resistance to electrical flow is small. If current is measured in amperes…

22Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Callus Skin is Different

Biology

[caption id="attachment_21280" align="alignright" width="440"] Rhino Horn[/caption] You work hard when you dig with a shovel or chop wood. The result of rubbing and friction on the hands is callus skin. Calluses may result due to poorly fitting footwear. Carpenters, mechanics, and plumbers have calluses on fingers and palms. What exactly is a callus? Keratinocytes The skin of the palms is about 0.8 to 1.4 millimeters thick. That is some ten times the thickness of other skin. Plantar skin (the skin of the soles of the feet) also can be thick and keratinized. In this process ordinary skin changes into keratinocytes—a horny layer that protects underlying layers. Keratin - Elsewhere in Nature Repeat friction and rubbing stimulate production of tough, fibrous protein called keratin, which toughens skin. Keratin is strengthened by…

22Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Chopping Onions Makes You Cry

Chemistry, Food

[caption id="attachment_17235" align="alignright" width="480"] Purple onion.[/caption] You are about to prepare a delicious meal—a meal that requires you to slice or chop onions. Do you dread the task? The act of chopping onions is simple enough, but you know already chopping onions makes you cry. Why? What can you do to avoid it? Let's find out. Chopping Onions Makes You Cry The chemical that comes from preparing onions is called a lachrymator. That word lachrymator is simply defined as a chemical that irritates the eyes, causing tears to flow. In fact, a purely gaseous lachrymator may be called "tear-gas." Yes, onions produce tear-gas: specifically, (Z)-propanethial-S-oxide (PTSO). Onions of themselves don’t cause a problem. It is the slicing and chopping of them, the damage inflicted to the cell walls, that causes…

22Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

What are Allotropes?

Chemistry

[caption id="attachment_6012" align="alignright" width="440"] Cyclooctasulfur (S8)[/caption] What are allotropes? An allotrope is one of a variety of forms in which an element can exist. This does not refer to the state of an element, whether solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. It refers to the tendency of an element to exist in different structural forms. Allotropes of Carbon Thus carbon can be found in a variety of forms, including graphite, charcoal, diamond, fullerenes, and nanotubes. Of Sulfur Sulfur allotropes take an assortment of forms. These include rings that range from six to twenty atoms. Especially well known are the monoclinic and rhombic crystalline forms. Of Phosphorous Phosphorus allotropes exist in a variety of colors. Ordinary phosphorous is called white phosphorous (P₄). It is unstable and dangerous. But there are also red,…

21Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 6 Comments

Chemicals to Peel Tomatoes?

Food, Manufacturing

The advertisement for Hunt’s Tomatoes says they use no harsh chemicals to peel their canned tomatoes. This statement does not openly suggest other companies use harsh chemicals, but it implies that they do. In fact, it is a common practice to use chemicals to peel tomatoes. Hunt, though, declares they use steam. To Tell the Truth My curiosity aroused, I decided to look into the matter. Technically, Hunt is telling the truth. Nonetheless, the use of lye in the peeling of fruits and vegetables is not new or unusual. Although 70% of tomatoes are peeled using hot water or steam, approximately 30% are peeled using lye. 'How To' Peel Tomatoes These facts are found in the publication by the University of California, Davis entitled, Peelability and Yield of Processing Tomatoes…

21Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

The Aromatic Cyclopentadienyl Anion

Chemistry, Education

[caption id="attachment_16480" align="alignright" width="440"] Cyclopentadienyl Anion[/caption] Is it possible that for an ion to be aromatic? Yes. Consider the aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion. Hückel’s Rule dictates a flat ring with 4n + 2 π (pi) conjugated electrons. The smallest neutral ring with these qualifications has n = 1. It is benzene (C₆H₆). But Hückel’s law does not require an electronically neutral structure. The smallest aromatic ion is the cyclopropenyl cation¹ (C₃H₃⁺). Is there a negative ion that has 6 π electrons and is aromatic? The answer is yes. The aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion (C₅H₅⁻). Neutral Cyclopentadiene Neutral cyclopentadiene is flat. It is pentagon shaped. Three of the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. The other two are double bonds. At each of the four ends of the two double bonds there is one…

20Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Components and Functions of Neurons

Biology

The brain is the cognitive center of the higher animals, and humans. The brain is compared to a computer central processing unit (CPU). The brain has a complex substructure. These include macroscopic, microscopic, and submicroscopic features. Of special significance are neurons. These are typically illustrated in Figure 1. What are it's component parts? Notably axons, dendrites, synapses, and receptors. Components of Neurons A neuron is a nerve cell. It receives signals via chemicals called neurotransmitters. It then transmits the signals, electrically. A neuron consists of a cell body or soma, dendrites, and a single axon. It is one of many units that makes up the brain. Axons An axon is a fiber rather like a cable. It carries electrochemical signals from the soma to other neurons. The axon is surrounded…

20Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Temperature Different from Heat?

Physics

[caption id="attachment_5975" align="alignright" width="440"] Thermometer - Image: CDC[/caption] Is temperature different from heat? Yes, even though the two are related. Atoms or molecules, whether of a solid, a liquid, or a gas, vibrate. They may also rotate. They may even move through space. This latter form of motion is called translation. Atoms consist of protons and neutrons in a central core called a nucleus. The nucleus is orbited by one or more electrons. These electrons are called bound electrons, to distinguish them from free moving, unassociated, non-orbiting, electrons. Atoms + Energy Energize atoms and their vibrations, rotations, and translations are almost certain to alter. Exactly what happens depends on the way in which the energy is supplied and the way in which it is absorbed. The greater the atomic or…

19Mar 2014 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Alcohol Protonation: Synthesis Intermediate

Chemistry

[caption id="attachment_20866" align="alignright" width="440"] Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.[/caption] What is alcohol protonation? An alcohol is an organic compound. Some examples are ethanol (ethyl alcohol), isopropyl alcohol, and t-butyl alcohol. They have the generic chemical formula ROH. H is hydrogen, O is oxygen, and R is any aliphatic (carbon chain) group. Alcohols are important organic synthetic reagents. During a reaction process, alcohols may be protonated by mineral acids.¹ Alcohol protonation is the adding of a proton. Ethanol, for instance, protonates accordingly, C₂H₅-OH + H⁺ → C₂H₅-OH₂⁺ Notice from the protonated structure that the final three atoms closely resemble water (H₂O). Water is quite stable. Thus, it is a “good leaving group.” What remains is a carbocation. It should be noted is the charge is now not on the oxygen atom.…