Vincent Summers, Author at Quirky Science

16Jul 2016 by Vincent Summers 3 Comments

The Bent Water Molecule – Why Is It Bent?

[caption id="attachment_14934" align="alignright" width="480"] Liquid Water (Left) - Ice (Right)[/caption] The water molecule, H₂O, consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A naïve attempt at writing its structure out in full is H‒O‒H. What’s naïve about this? This drawing is linear—a straight line. It is naïve because the water molecule is a bent water molecule... bent at about 104.5°. It is a good thing for us that this is so, since this imparts a degree of polarity to the water molecule. Polarity, in turn, gives rise to hydrogen bonding. The hydrogen bonding of molecules assures water’s liquidity. In addition hydrogen bonding influences water’s crystallization, so that ice is lighter than very cold water. Ice thus floats, forming an insulating blanket atop lakes and other bodies of water. This…

13Jul 2016 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Cooked Blueberries Taste Different – Why?

Chemistry, Food

Moderate heating of most single chemical compounds simply raises their temperature. Perhaps there may be an accompanying change of state. Thus ice if heated forms liquid water. But with increased heat, compounds can be made to break down. For instance, sugar melts and caramelizes. Biological systems, such as fruits, may experience cell wall breakdown and a number of chemical changes. Consider one example: cooked blueberries taste different from raw blueberries. Why is that? Relevant Blueberry Chemistry Much of the blueberry chemistry relevant to our discussion stems from compounds containing the same skeletal structure, that of the molecule flavone. Flavone has two rings: one large, one small. The larger ring includes an ether linkage (–C–O–C–) and a ketone group (–C–(C=O)–C–). The compounds as a group are the flavonoids. [caption id="attachment_19735" align="alignleft"…

06Jul 2016 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

The Molecular Structure of Hydronium Ion Hydrate

Chemistry, Physics

[caption id="attachment_16126" align="alignright" width="440"] Simple hydronium ion, unhydrated.[/caption] Abstract: The water molecule, H2O, can attach a hydrogen ion (H+) perhaps from a dissolved acid, to become a hydronium ion, H3O+, sometimes called a hydroxonium ion. This ion, if surrounded by water molecules, can form additional hydrogen bonds with them as well. The question is what is the molecular structure of the resulting hydronium ion hydrate? The mind conceives two serious possibilities. But what do studies reveal? Background It is a general principle of nature that a system is more stable if charges are spread out as much as possible. In the field of chemistry, the best known example of this involves water. Although the sum total of the electric charge of a neutral water molecule is zero, as the image…

04Jul 2016 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Heavy Water –vs.– Regular Water

Chemistry, Physics

[caption id="attachment_14687" align="alignright" width="440"] Heavy Water & Water - Image by Author.[/caption] Hydrogen exists as three varieties or isotopes: protium, deuterium, and tritium. Heavy water, or deuterium oxide (D₂O) is the same compound as ordinary or tap water (H₂O) with one structure difference. Most of the hydrogen atoms in tap water have zero neutrons in their centers, or nuclei. On the other hand, every atom of deuterium contains precisely one neutron. We will not discuss tritium, with its one proton and two neutrons. [caption id="attachment_14693" align="alignright" width="400"] Protium & Deuterium Hydrogen - NASA[/caption] A Closer Inspection of Hydrogen Isotopes The mass of an atom is determined by the nucleus. Since the weight of a proton and that of a neutron are nearly identical, deuterium atoms have a mass essentially double…

02Jul 2016 by Vincent Summers 3 Comments

Why All Helium Has Not Escaped Earth’s Atmosphere

Geology, Physics

[caption id="attachment_14665" align="alignright" width="440"] Hydrogen or Helium?[/caption] Ninety of the elements occur in nature. The smallest and lightest of the elements is hydrogen. Yet, it is abundant in Earth. Almost no hydrogen gas escapes Earth’s atmosphere. This is partly because hydrogen is reactive and exists almost exclusively in combination with other, heavier elements. Helium, too, is a gas. It is the second lightest element. However, it is neither reactive nor abundant. It does not occur in nature in compound form. Why doesn’t it all escape Earth’s atmosphere? Comparing Hydrogen and Helium Although hydrogen is the lightest element and atom, it almost never exists, even as a gas, in atomic form. It assumes, not monatomic form, H, but diatomic form, H₂. The weight of that is twice the weight of an…

27Jun 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Discovering Dragon’s Arum in Nelson, Virginia

Biology, Plants

Nelson County, Virginia, is the place I call home. It’s a rather ordinary place that some might call backwoods. It is not known for its technology. Indeed, they got their first stoplight only a handful of years ago. Even that wasn’t truly necessary, but I suspect they put it up as representing their idea of progress. If there are any particular things the county might be known for, it is its history of making moonshine (now wines, hard ciders, and spirits) and its homegrown peaches. Little did I suspect one day I’d be introduced to Dragon’s Arum (Dracunculus vulgaris) for the first time in good ol’ Nelson County. You see, a car group consisting typically of four people including myself makes trips throughout the county to preach and offer free…

17Jun 2016 by Vincent Summers 6 Comments

Puffballs, Earthstars, Jelly, and Bracket Fungi

Food, Plants

[caption id="attachment_14895" align="alignright" width="480"] Puffballs-from-Belfasts-St.-Georges[/caption] A famous scientist’s father asked the man to describe a specific bird. The scientist used impressive language. The father then told the young man his description told him nothing about the bird. The words were mere man-made classification terms. The scientist took the lesson to heart. He became the famous nuclear physicist, Richard Feynman. In discussing puffballs and the other fungi, we will avoid scientific jargon or lingo. Instead, we will speak of what they are and why they are special. [caption id="attachment_14891" align="alignleft" width="320"] Puffball-Fungus-from-Eaglenest-Arunachal-by-Kalyanvarma-CC-by-SA3.0[/caption] As a child, you may have been running in a field and spotted what looked like an odd round or egg-shaped white to greenish-brown object. It may have been smooth, or it may have had small warts or spikes…

13Jun 2016 by Vincent Summers 5 Comments

The Devils Walking Stick – Aralia Spinosa

Plants

Years ago, while walking along a stretch of University of Virginia woods, I spotted what looked like giant rose bushes. Research revealed they were spiny deciduous shrubs (resembling small trees) called Hercules Club or the Devils Walking Stick, Latin name Aralia spinosa. While the stems resemble rose bush stems, the density of the thorns is much greater. To a large degree, the shrubs spread by means of runners (rhizomes). The beautiful leaves are compound, ornate, and quite large. The flowers are creamy-white and are plentiful. The fruit clusters remind one of elderberry fruit. If its moderate spreading tendency can be tolerated, the shrub is a magnet for butterflies and small birds. Black bears will also eat the fruit. Deer may browse the plant and use it as a place to…

24May 2016 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Why Cyclodecapentaene is Not an Aromatic Hydrocarbon

Chemistry

[caption id="attachment_16073" align="alignright" width="440"] Fig 1. Cyclodecapentaene - all cis form.[/caption] There are aromatic hydrocarbons and there are non-aromatic hydrocarbons. For basic mono-ring structures that have alternating carbon-carbon double bonds, there is a rule called Hückel’s rule that defines whether a given hydrocarbon can be aromatic or not. It might seem, at first that cyclodecapentaene (C10H10 or [10]-annulene) should be aromatic. Yet, cyclodecapentaene is not an aromatic hydrocarbon. Let’s find out why not. A Few Simple Rules for Aromatic Behavior The double bonds in the ring must be conjugated (alternating). This allows for the electrons to be delocalized [in conceptualization be flipped in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction]. This allows for the presence of what is called a ring current. The ring must be flat. The mono-ring must feature…

18May 2016 by Vincent Summers 6 Comments

Total Energy in One Hydrogen Atom

Chemistry, Physics

[caption id="attachment_14456" align="alignright" width="440"] Hydrogen Bomb[/caption] Hydrogen is the lightest of the elements. However, there are three isotopes of hydrogen. The lightest of these is protium. It contains just one proton and one electron. Let’s determine the total energy of one protium atom. Its mass is 1.007822 atomic mass units. So what is the total energy one hydrogen atom produces if obliterated? By obliterated, we mean 100% conversion from matter to energy, not the mere energy of separation of particles, as in fission. Einstein’s Mass-to-Energy Equation In our calculating, it is important we stick to proper units. If we were cooking and the recipe called for a cup of flour, would we substitute a tablespoon? Our equation is Einstein’s mass to energy expression, E = mc² If the mass is…