Vincent Summers, Author at Quirky Science

10Nov 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

What Are Hybrid Atomic Orbitals?

Chemistry

[caption id="attachment_6346" align="alignright" width="440"] Pre-hybridization 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz atomic orbitals.[/caption] An atom consists of two components - a nucleus and its orbiting electrons. Nuclei contain neutrons and protons bound together by nuclear force. Electrons travel in well-defined atomic orbitals outside the nucleus. Orbitals come in different shapes. They contain up to two electrons each. A collection of orbits forms an electron shell. Atoms can have more than one shell. Orbitals and shells are identified by letters and numbers. The details are beyond the scope of this article; however, atoms begin filling electron orbitals in the order, Orbitals: s, p, d, f... Shells: 1, 2, 3, 4... First Elements Thus the first ten elements fill their orbitals and shells, Hydrogen 1s¹ Helium 1s² Lithium 1s² 2s¹ Beryllium 1s²…

07Nov 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

The Two Processes Called Electron Capture

Chemistry

[caption id="attachment_6340" align="alignright" width="440"] The Physics Process[/caption] There is not one, but two processes, called electron or e- capture. Atoms can be visualized as two parts. The central nucleus, an inner core of protons plus neutrons, and an external shell of electrons traveling in their various orbitals. Ordinary chemical processes involve the making or breaking of bonds between two or more atoms. These bonds involve the electrons and the openings that hold them. The physics process of e- capture is the penetration by an inner shell electron into the nucleus of a neutron rich atom. Absorption by one of the protons replaces it with a neutron. At the same time, a neutrino and an X-ray photon are emitted. What Defines an Element? Element identity is determined by the proton count…

07Nov 2014 by Vincent Summers 4 Comments

What is a Hydronium Ion?

Chemistry

What is a hydronium ion? Water... Is there a more important or abundant liquid on the face of the earth? It possesses an amazing number of properties. It is essential to our very existence. Water is one of an extremely small number of substances (liquid ammonia is another) that expands and becomes lighter on freezing. Ice floats and forms an insulating, protective crust over underlying water. If ice sank rather and didn't float instead, the ponds and lakes of earth would completely freeze. All living things would die. Structure & Electrical Properties of Water Water's chemical formula is H2O. Occasionally it is written HOH or H–O–H. This way of writing the structure is convenient as long as one is aware of the shortcomings. Water is not a linear molecule. It…

03Nov 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Analytic Geometry Coordinate Axes and Drawing a Line

Mathematics

In analytical geometry (usually taught in high school), two lines are drawn on a paper that are perpendicular to each other. The vertical line represents the "y-axis," and the horizontal line represents the "x-axis." Using these two axes, every point on the paper can be given a value that defines where the point is. If the place where the two lines cross is the zero point or origin, its coordinates (x, y) are simply, (0, 0). Along the horizontal x-axis, starting to the right of the (0, 0) point, write little numbers like a ruler has, 1, 2, 3, and so forth. To the left of that point, write, -1, -2, -3, and so on. For the y-axis, the 1, 2, 3, and such go upward, whereas the -1, -2,…

28Oct 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Analytic Geometry: The Ellipse and the Circle

Mathematics

The circle is really a special type of ellipse. In analytic geometry, an ellipse is a mathematical equation that, when graphed, resembles an egg. An ellipse has two focal points. The distance apart between the two points is one way of describing a particular ellipse. If the two points come together the ellipses become a circle with the point at its center. The equation for an ellipse is, x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 In this equation, "a" and "b" are constants that determine the shape of the ellipse, whereas x and y are variables, i.e., they can take on a host of values. When the value for x is known, the value for y is determined. Or, if it is y that is known, then x is determined. If a…

27Oct 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Anhydrides – Inorganic and Organic

Chemistry

Anhydrides are compounds that are similar to other compounds from which one or more molecules of water has been eliminated. An anhydride must not be confused with an anhydrous compound. In an anhydrous compound, the water reactant from which it is formed includes water that is attached lightly by weak bonds. Water is not an inherent part of the molecule's structure. Consider cupric sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO₄•5H₂O. This is a blue, crystalline substance. It is a composite structure of one molecule of cupric sulfate and five weakly held molecules of water of crystallization. Those water molecules can be removed quite easily. Powdering the crystals and warming them in a drying oven produces CuSO₄. This anhydrous compound is nearly white. No, it is not an anhydride. Aluminum Oxide Aluminum oxide, Al₂O₃, is an…

13Oct 2014 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

The Molecular Structure of Sodium Metasilicate Anhydrous

Chemistry

The basic formula for sodium metasilicate (water glass) includes two sodium, one silicon, and three oxygen atoms. When it includes no trace of water, the meta-silicate is anhydrous. Its formula should then be Na2SiO3, right? Well, yes. But, to leave it at that would be less than truthful. Parts, Just Parts Sodium meta-silicate can be visualized in two parts. One part is the two sodium ions Na+, each with a +1 charge. The other part is the meta-silicate (SiO3)-2 with its minus two charge. Some atoms can link to form chains. These atoms include carbon, boron, and silicon. Silicon and oxygen atoms of sodium meta-silicate molecules form a polymeric, corner bonded tetrahedra complex. This complex appears as if it has sub-units of SiO4 (silicon atoms central in tetrahedra). Note the SiO4…

22Sep 2014 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Calculate Radiation Energy By Wavelength

Physics

[caption id="attachment_6281" align="alignright" width="480"] Rainbow Light[/caption] Light exhibits properties that make it seem to have a dual-nature. Sometimes it resembles a particle. Sometimes it resembles a wave. In this article, the energy of a particle will be calculated using a wave property - wavelength. The energy is radiation energy. Radiation from the electromagnetic spectrum in order of decreasing wavelength begins at the low end with radio waves and microwaves. Next is light radiation from the infrared region, the visible and the ultraviolet. Highest in frequency are the x-rays and cosmic radiation. The wavelength range is from approximately 100,000 centimeters to one ten-billionth of a centimeter! The Nature of Light Scientists do not completely understand light. So far it has best been described as possessing two natures. Sometimes it acts as…

22Aug 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Explaining Saturation and Unsaturation

Chemistry

What is Saturation? What is Unsaturation? Even those scientifically uninclined use the words. Saturation, unsaturation, and polyunsaturation are dietary terms closely associated with health. Most know they are also chemical terms. But they don't understand what they mean. This is a shame, since "saturation" can be easily understood by any bright student. Saturated Hydrocarbon Linkage Living matter (plant or animal) is made of of organic compounds. These include (but are not limited to) fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. All these substances contain a kind of backbone or chain, of atoms of carbon (C) bonded to atoms of hydrogen (H). Each carbon is capable of bonding with four hydrogens. [sc name="MidArticleAdsense"] For purposes of illustration, we'll assume we have before us a chain of four carbon atoms, with every available bond possibility…

21Aug 2014 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Cubane: The Chemist’s Toy?

Chemistry

Cubane is an organic hydrocarbon. It consists of carbon and hydrogen and is cubic in shape. It is a very curious substance, indeed. With no practical purpose in view, it was first prepared in 1964. There is an endless number of theoretical molecular possibilities in the world of organic chemistry. Some chemicals are simple. Others are complex. Some are of practical use to mankind. Some are mere toys of the intellect. Yes, adults must have their toys! Cubism "We do the difficult immediately. The impossible takes a little time." Chemists enjoy challenges. One challenge was to synthesize cubane (C8H8). It is a cut with a carbon atom at each corner. Attached to each of them is one hydrogen atom (see the image). Now carbon "prefers" to form angles of 109.5…