18Apr 2019 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Introduction to Chemistry Subscripts and Superscripts

Chemistry, Education
Subscript and superscript can make all the difference when it comes to chemical formulas. Molecules, compounds, and other chemical structures include more than one atom. Sometimes, there are multiples of one particular atom. For instance, anhydrous aluminum chloride features one atom of aluminum joined to or combined with three atoms of chlorine. Its chemical formula reflects this: AlCl3. But – simply knowing how to use a number in this instance is not enough. It is essential to know the proper use of subscripts and superscripts. Subscripts in Chemistry Notice the number 3 is written as a subscript, or a number that is smaller than the other text, and below the normal text line, in the formula for anhydrous aluminum chloride above. The concept of a multiplicity of atoms is conveyed…
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18Apr 2019 by Vincent Summers 3 Comments

Where Does Crude Oil Come From? Biotic or Abiotic Processes?

Chemistry, Education
Crude oil is used in the production of gasoline, diesel fuel, and other important substances, including plastics. The crude oil comes from the ground beneath our feet. But the question arises, how did it get there? Where Does Crude Oil Come From? There are two basic theories for the origin of crude oil: biotic and abiotic. The biotic theory predominates. It attributes oil’s formation to the decay of animal and plant matter. The less widely accepted – even controversial – abiotic theory denies the involvement of living organisms in the production of crude oil. These two theories are finding most of their adherents in two camps – the Western camp (biotic) and the Russian-Ukrainian camp (abiotic) – although there are western scientists in the R-U camp. This division is especially…
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24Jul 2017 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Jargon: When to Use It and When Not to Use It

Education, People
[caption id="attachment_18089" align="alignright" width="420"] Huh?[/caption] Jargon is essential to many professions. Jargon consists of words and phrases that speed up communication when discussing complex or convoluted ideas. But the silver lining of jargon frequently enshrouds a gray cloud. An Example A chemist speaks to a lab technician about sodium cations. Now most of us know what a sodium atom is, but the word ‘cation’ doesn’t ring a bell. What is a cation? As the last three letters of its name suggest, a cation is an ion. Atoms are electrically neutral. That is, they do not have a net electrical charge. Although they contain positive protons and negative electrons, the total charges are equal. In effect, they cancel each other out. Add an additional electron or subtract one already present and…
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16May 2017 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Simple Algebra II Graph Symmetries Discussion and Examples

Education, Mathematics
[caption id="attachment_17854" align="alignright" width="480"] Typical functions in two variables.[/caption] College preparatory classes in high school often include Algebra and Algebra II. Perhaps the most memorable aspect of Algebra II is the two-dimensional (2D) graphing of mathematical functions in two variables. This is typically introduced beginning with the Cartesian coordinate system. The generic function is written y = f (x). This reads y equals a function of x. See the illustration for some examples of functions. Cartesian Coordinate System In the Cartesian system, two variables, often x and y, are assigned their own line, one horizontal (x), one vertical (y). The intersection between the two axes is called the origin, and is assigned the value (0, 0). The value of x is the value written on the left in the brackets;…
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11May 2017 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Sphere Reciprocal? Not Inside Out, But Equation Inverse?

Education, Mathematics
One way of mathematically representing a very simple sphere in 3D space is, r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 where r equals a radius of the sphere. Solving in terms of x, y, and z, we get, x = √(r2 — y2 — z2) y = √(r2 — x2 — z2) z = √(r2 — x2 — y2) A Sphere Reciprocal Now a sphere may be the most aesthetically pleasing of the simple geometric curves. So it is natural to wonder, concerning a sphere, what if…? So what if we convert the equation into an equation for a sphere reciprocal? No, not turn the sphere inside out. Rather an inverse of the equation of a sphere? What is the graph of, r2 = 1/( x2 + y2 + z2)…
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03May 2017 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Calculating Quantities for Stoichiometric Chemical Reactions

Chemistry, Education
[caption id="attachment_17791" align="alignright" width="380"] Image CCA-SA3.0 Unported by Lord Mountbatten[/caption] Exam time approaches and you realize your teacher is likely to write down some equations and expect you to fill in the blanks. So you would like to consider a few problems ahead of time to prepare you in advance. We will demonstrate two. The second problem is just a bit tricky. See if you can anticipate what gives! Problem 1: We will first consider the reaction of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) plus hydrochloric acid (HCl) to yield sodium chloride (NaCl) plus water (H₂O). NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O Only one molecule of each reactant is needed to produce one molecule of each product. 1 NaOH + 1 HCl → 1 NaCl + 1 H₂O The atomic weights for…
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26Apr 2017 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Benzene from Coal and Lye?

Chemistry, Education
[caption id="attachment_17736" align="alignright" width="480"] Coal and Lye[/caption] As a youth, I read whatever chemistry books I could get hold of. One made reference to an obscure synthesis of the liquid aromatic compound benzene from coal and lye, by means of heat. This reaction would seem to be an improbable one. Can a stoichiometric equation be written for such a synthesis? The answer is, Yes. This in itself does not guarantee the reaction can actually take place. 6 NaOH + 9 C → 3 Na2O + C6H6 + 3 CO I learned of this synthesis from an old book, possibly published in the 1800s. Coal and Lye - What Conditions? Such a reaction strongly suggests isolation. The reaction required considerable heat. Also, air was to be excluded, since carbon would react…
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20Apr 2017 by Vincent Summers 2 Comments

Cuprous Sulfate: A Disagreement with My High School Chemistry Teacher

Chemistry, Education
[caption id="attachment_17698" align="alignright" width="440"] Classroom[/caption] As a kid, I was excessively shy and retiring – except when it came to matters of science and math. When it came to them, I was generally quiet but I could become quite outspoken if the occasion arose. During senior year, I approached my math instructor and told him an entire chapter in our textbook was wrong. He was reluctant to hear me out, but when he did, he acknowledged I was correct. On one occasion during junior year, I was listening to my chemistry teacher attentively when he spoke of cuprous sulfate. For those who are unacquainted with terminology, this would have been the old name (the name I still use) for copper(I) sulfate. I informed Mr. D’Alesandro that the only existing copper…
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27Feb 2017 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Is Economics a Science? Giffen’s Paradox Shouts “No!”

Education, Humor
[caption id="attachment_16247" align="alignright" width="440"] A pair-o-ducks, get it? Paradox?[/caption] Giffen's Paradox? Economics is the study of the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth. Some view economics almost like a religion—certainly as if it was a science complete with laws and principles, predicting behavior and outcome. We are told the value of an object relates to the law of supply and demand. If three people want an object and there are only two available, it should command a higher price than if there were only two people and three were available. [caption id="attachment_16546" align="alignleft" width="270"] Namesake Sir Robt. Giffen.[/caption] Giffen's Paradox But now, say you have a new hand-held device. Sales are not the best, even though you offer a low, get-acquainted price. What do you do as a businessman to…
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