Education Archives - Page 3 of 4

30Jan 2017 by Vincent Summers No Comments

The Difference Between Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes

[caption id="attachment_16044" align="alignright" width="440"] An acetylene (ethyne) torch.[/caption] Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are made up of carbon and hydrogen. The carbon atoms in each exhibit a valency of four. Though these three hydrocarbon varieties are similar, there is a difference in bonding. We illustrate this with the simplest example: ethane vs. ethene vs. ethyne. Common and Scientific Names Common names are names given to many compounds, but they may mislead the uninitiated. For instance, the scientific names of alkenes contain the suffix –en(e) as part of their name. But acetylene is not an alkene. It is an alkyne. The scientific names of alkynes contains the suffix –yne. Acetylene is scientifically named ethyne. Yet, it nomenclature is not the only difference between alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. Alkanes Alkanes are completely saturated…

30Jan 2017 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Tetra-Tert-Butyl Methane – The Acyclic Alkane That Seemingly Should Exist

Chemistry, Education

The smallest non-cyclic alkane that theoretically should exist, but to date has never successfully been prepared, is tetra-tert-butyl methane. The reason it is so elusive is crowding or steric hindrance. Introducing TTBM Tetra-tert-butyl methane is the common name of 3,3-ditert-butyl-2,2,4,4-tetramethylpentane. A glimpse at the structure reveals the overcrowding. Despite the overcrowding, according to energy calculations, the molecule (we’ll call it TTBM) should be capable of existence. Assembling the Model Even building the model from its component parts presented a measure of difficulty. The 17 carbon atoms (black spheres) and 36 hydrogen atoms (smaller white spheres) required some effort to assemble into TTBM. Still, it was accomplished with all the component atoms not touching one another. What is the problem or problems? [caption id="attachment_16028" align="alignleft" width="405"] Molecular Model TTBM[/caption] Synthesis While…

05Oct 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Factorials? What are They? A Simple Kind of Mathematics Shorthand

Education, Mathematics

What are factorials? A variable is a symbol, often written as a letter of the alphabet that stands for a number that can vary in value. For example, take your age. That varies every year, doesn’t it? This year your age may be, say 21. If so, in 365 days your age will be 22. Another 365 days after that and your age will be 23. Thus age is a function of time. For you, we can write right now: A = 21 If the number of years that pass equals n, then for next year, n = 1 and An = 21 + n So, A₀ = 21 + 0 = 21 A₁ = 21 + 1 = 22 A₂ = 21 + 2 = 23 A₃ = 21…

01Oct 2016 by Vincent Summers No Comments

Origin Earth: From External Matter or By On Site Fusion?

Astronomy, Education

[caption id="attachment_15593" align="alignright" width="480"] Nuclear fusion in a red giant.[/caption] Origin Earth: As elementary school students, we are taught many subjects, including science. We are taught proven facts, which is a fine thing. Yet some unproven ideas may be included disguised as actual fact. A science theory may be popular yet wrong. Recall the ancient idea that Earth is supported in space by objects such as elephants and turtles, rather than by gravity. Also recall our planet was thought to be the center of the universe, while the sun rotated about it. Finally, remember, recall, realize that some felt the earth was one heck-of-a huge flat pancake. The Big Bang Theory One popular origins theory is the Big Bang. Simply put, a large explosion occurred that propelled matter and energy…

01Sep 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Acids, Bases, Salts: Can An Oxide Be A Salt?

Chemistry, Education

[caption id="attachment_15469" align="alignright" width="440"] Aluminum chloride, hexahydrate. - Image Victor Claessen CC-SA 3.0.[/caption] Acids, bases, salts: Can an oxide be a salt? Let’s find out. Combine an acid and a base and you often get back a salt and water. This should be no surprise. It is high school chemistry. Assume we have a most simple acid, H-A. Too, we have a most simple base, B-OH. If we react the two, we expect the reaction mechanism to be written, H-A + B-OH → B-A + H2O H2O is, of course, water. B-A is the expected salt. Is An Oxide a Salt? Let us consider an example that deviates from the above simple concept—aluminum. Metals tend toward cationic (+) behavior. Non-metals act in opposite fashion, tending toward anionic (-) behavior. Aluminum…

06Aug 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Make Homemade Iron Gall Ink from Oak Tree Galls

Chemistry, Education

[caption id="attachment_15237" align="alignright" width="480"] Oak tree gall.[/caption] As you guide your shopping cart down an aisle not devoted to foodstuffs, you spot a bag of a dozen pens on sale for an acceptable price. You grab a pack and move on… At one time, you might have had to prepare homemade iron gall ink from oak tree galls. Oak Tree Galls What are oak tree galls? These generally round growths are produced by the interaction of plant hormones of an oak tree, combined with growth regulating chemicals produced by gall wasps and other insects or mites. The galls are lightweight and filled with air and fibers. They are rich in gallotannic acid, which is broken down by water into tannic acid, one of the ingredients used to make ink. History…

16May 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Azulene or Cycloheptatrienyl Cation Cyclopentadienyl Anion “Salt”?

Chemistry, Education

[caption id="attachment_14421" align="alignright" width="440"] The dipolar azulene hydrocarbon[/caption] Azulene is a fascinating hydrocarbon. It is bicyclic, meaning it has a kind of double ring structure. It is a seven-member ring adjoined to a five-member ring by a shared two-carbon wall. One ring resembles cycloheptatriene. The other ring, cyclopentadiene. And yet, there is something different about azulene. Or should we say some things different? Unusual Qualities Although azulene is a hydrocarbon, it is a deep blue hydrocarbon, something very much out of the ordinary. The Lactarius indigo mushroom, in fact, gets its blue coloration from a derivative of azulene. In addition, although most plain hydrocarbons have little or no dipole moment, azulene has a dipole moment of 1.08 Debye units. This is equal to that of the nitrogen-containing diphenylamine molecule. [caption…

13May 2016 by Vincent Summers 1 Comment

Mathematical Powers – a Simple Insight

Education, Mathematics

[caption id="attachment_14363" align="alignright" width="380"] Squaring - the Power of 2[/caption] Multiplication is one of the simpler operations we perform on numbers. As kids we had to learn the multiplication tables, one times two equals two, two times two equals three, three times two equals six, and so forth. It didn’t take long before most of us were comfortable multiplying simple numbers. But sometimes we multiply the same number times itself. In that case, we can write out the multiplication in the usual way, or we can write it in terms of mathematical powers. Mathematical Powers – a Simple Illustration Let’s consider the example of three times three. That can be written either 3 x 3 = 9, or in powers notation, 32 = 9 This tells us three to the…

18Apr 2016 by Vincent Summers 3 Comments

Parametric Equations: I Corrected the Text Book

Education, Mathematics

A former fellow high school student, Ted L., recently contacted me. He wrote concerning our senior year, in which we shared a math course that included parametric equations. Ted Talks “I recall being in the advanced math class with Mr. Miller where I struggled quite a bit. In a discussion about solving some problem, you presented an alternative solution. Mr. Miller quickly dismissed your idea in a rather condescending fashion, shaking his head and stating, "No Summers, [you’re wrong]," with a tone that suggested your idea was rather silly, perhaps bordering on absurd. But you persisted, in a back and forth between you, that lasted for several minutes. During that discussion, I was completely lost, having no idea at all what either of you was talking about. After many gives…

18Nov 2015 by Vincent Summers 4 Comments

Pompeii: Frozen Animal Statues?

Education, History

Who is unacquainted with the dreadful eruption of Mt. Vesuvius? That volcanic disaster brought raining death by heat, smoke, and ash. Numerous detailed plaster casts of the dead portray life’s activities in Pompeii and other towns in clear detail. Men, women, and children lie in postures that prove how quickly they died. A cross-section of all aspects of life is seen – whether at home, work, or elsewhere. Recently, the concept that most died from the volcanic ash was seriously reconsidered. A more probable explanation is that Pompeii victims died by flash heating. This understanding arose from a comparison of the way volcano victims died in other, nearby towns. Questions Arise But a question arises: What about wild, farm, and domestic animals? Are there “statues” of these creatures to be found?…